Each capsule contains Vitamins Minerals Vitamin A (Palmitate) 10,000 IU Calcium (Carbonate) 100 mg Vitamin D3 (Cholecalciferol) 200 IU Iron (Fumarate) 8 mg Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid) 150 mg Copper (Cupric Sulfate) 1 mg Vitamin E (d-αTocopherol) 100 IU Iodine (Potassium Iodide) 75 μg Vitamin B1 (Thiamin HCl) 25 mg Magnesium (Oxide) 27.5 mg Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin) 25 mg Zinc (Sulfate) 7.5 mg Vitamin B6 25 mg Potassium (Sulfate) 15 mg Vitamin B12 (Cobalamin)   25 μg Chromium (GTF) 12.5 μg Pantothenic Acid (Calcium d-Pantothenate) 25 mg Selenium (L-selenomethionine) 12.5 μg Niacin 5 mg Molybdenum (Aminote) 12.5 μg Niacinamide 25 mg     Folic Acid 200 μg     Biotin 25 μg     RecommendedDosage: One capsule a day with a meal or as recommended by yourhealth care practitioner. Vitamin A Vitamin A has many functions, including cell differentiation(epithelial cells and goblet cells – mucus secreting cells), vision, immunefunction (antibody production, macrophage mobilization, T-cell activation), andin growth and bone remodeling. The major active form is retinoic acid except invision, where retinal is the active form. Deficiency of vitamin A leads toincreased susceptibility to infections, failure to grow – in children, nightblindness and impaired absorption in the GI tract – giving rise to diarrhea -and dry, scaly skin. Vitamin D­3 Although vitamin D3 can be synthesized by thebody from 7-dehydrocholesterol, additional quantities are required from food orsupplements, since insufficient amounts are produced, especially where there islow exposure to sunlight. Vitamin D (together with vitamin A, C and K) isrequired for bone formation. It increases calcium absorption from the GI tract,reduces calcium absorption by the kidneys and releases calcium from the bonesinto the blood stream, thus raising blood calcium levels, which can then bedirected to laying down of mineral in the bones. Vitamin D receptors are alsofound in the brain, pancreas, skin and reproductive organs. Vitamin C Vitamin C has many functions. It is involved with thebiosynthesis of hydroxyproline (an amino acid found only in collagen andrelated connective tissue) and in other hydroxylation reactions. Hydroxyprolinestabilizes the helical structure of collagen to enzymatic degradation. VitaminC prevents free radical and oxidation damage. It is also involved in ironmobilization, prevention of histamine accumulation (which can cause allergicreactions), and in controlling adrenal steroidogenesis during stress (there isa very high concentration of vitamin C in the adrenals). It is also requiredfor immune function: PMN function and for thymic hormone and interferonproduction. Vitamin C is a very common deficiency. Vitamin E Vitamin E is a major anti-oxidant for polyunsaturated lipidsPUFA’s. Since PUFA’s are a major component of cell walls, it is helps maintaincell integrity. Vitamin E is also important for the immune system in 10 and20 antibody responses and in inhibiting platelet aggregation. It hasbeen used to treat capillary fragility (purpura), infections, atherosclerosis(increases HDL and decreases LDL cholesterol levels) and inflammatoryconditions and to promote wound healing. Vitamin B1 Thiamin is involved as part of TPP in oxidativedecarboxylation of α-ketoacids and in the activation of transketolase. Thiamin (as thiamin triphosphate) also plays an essential role in nervetransmission.  Deficiency of thiamin iscommon in older people and there is evidence of deficiency of thiamin beingassociated with irritability, depression, insomnia and memory loss. Vitamin B2 Vitamin2 or riboflavin is converted into FMN andFAD in the body, which are coenzymes involved in transfer of hydrogen to theelectron transport chain. Deficiency of riboflavin leads to light sensitivity,cataract formation, impaired immune system, and poor growth. Vitamin B­6 Vitamin B6 is present in 3 forms: pyridoxal,pyridoxine and pyridoxamine. The active form is pyridoxal-5-phosphate. It isinvolved in the transamination of amino-acids i.e. the transfer of anamino-group from one amino-acid to the corresponding keto derivative of anotheramino-acid and in related reactions. In this way, non-essential amino-acids canbe made by the body. It is also involved in tryptophan conversion into niacin(but in humans this does not provide enough niacin to meet requirements), andinto serotonin, in decarboxylation reactions. Vitamin B6 is requiredfor the synthesis of gamma aminobutyric acid, epinephrine, norepinephrine andhistamine and for the activation of enzymes involved in the crosslinking ofcollagen. Mild vitamin B6 deficiency is quite common in women. Deficiency leadsto weakness, irritability and insomnia, and in severe deficiency there isfailure to grow, poor motor function and convulsions. Pantothenic Acid Pantothenic acid is part of coenzyme A, which is a carrierof acyl groups in fatty acid oxidation and synthesis, acetylation reactions andoxidative decarboxylations (together with thiamin). Pantothenic acid deficiency(even mild) is associated with fatigue. It appears that intake of pantothenicacid has decreased over the last 40 years from 7 to 3-4 mg daily, because ofdietary changes. Vitamin B12 Vitamin B 12 is essential for blood formation.Biochemically, it is involved with the transfer of methyl groups (methylationof homocysteine – now implicated in cardiovascular disease- to methionine, andconversion of methylmalonyl-CoA to succinyl CoA –a common step in themetabolism of branched-chain amino-acids). There may be a deficiency in vegandiets, since its main source is animal foods and bacteria. Megaloblastic anemiafollowed by peripheral neuropathy and can occur in severe deficiency. Niacin and Niacinamide Niacinamide has a wide variety of functions. It forms partof nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD). In dietary studies conducted on theolder population, vitamin B3 deficiency was very common. Vitamin B3 increasesthe HDL/LDL ratio, reduces triglyceride levels and increases brain bloodcirculation. Folic Acid Homocysteine build up may play a role in the development ofosteoporosis, since it inhibits the cross-linking of collagen (important inbone formation). Folic acid lowers blood homocysteine levels. Vitamin B12 and vitamin B6 are required for biosynthesis offolic acid. Folic acid is now recommended for pregnant women to prevent openneural tube defects such as spina bifida. Biotin Biotin is a co-enzyme involved in fat synthesis (in CO2transfer reactions of carboxylase co-enzymes – which are a first step to fattyacid synthesis) and in the metabolism of branched chain amino-acids (leucine,isoleucine) and methionine.  Biotin maybe helpful in seborrheic dermatitis and epilepsy, where there is a biotindeficiency caused by drugs (epilepsy) or other factors (dermatitis). Deficiencysymptoms are depression, muscle pain, weakness and fatigue. Deficiency is rarebut may be caused by intake of avidin (a protein derived from egg whites),which strongly binds biotin. Calcium Calcium is the principal mineral in bone (99%). Even beforemenopause calcium loss occurs from the bones which acceleratespost-menopausally. However, many other factors are involved in osteoporosis. InBantu women who only consume 300 mg a day of calcium – far below therecommended dose for Western women, osteoporosis is rare. These other factorsprobably relate to diet (high levels of protein intake, calcium/phosphorusratio) and life style (physical activity). Loss of calcium in post-menopausal women can reach 90-mg/ day. Iron Iron is the metal associated with hemoglobin, myoglobin andsome other proteins involved in oxygen transport. Iron deficiency is fairlycommon, but it is imperative to determine the cause of the deficiency – whetherdue to blood loss (from the GI tract or the urinary tract) or due toinsufficient intake. Iron deficiency leads to a variety of symptoms – apartfrom anemia. These are: impaired immune system (however, excessive iron willalso impair the immune system); weakness, fatigue, impaired cognitive functionand ability to learn, lactose intolerance, increased susceptibility to lead andcadmium poisoning; poor attention span, impaired co-ordination, reduced abilityto work, and impaired thermal regulation. Copper Copper is a co-factor of many enzymes involved in oxidation.These include ceruloplasmin, and ferroxidase, which are involved in ferrous -ferric iron interconversion, superoxide dismutase (also containing zinc), whichprotects cell membranes against free-radical damage, and in cytochrome C, partof the electron transport system. Copper is also a co-enzyme in lysyl oxidase,which is involved in the synthesis of collagen and tyrosinase, which isinvolved in melanin formation. Copper appears essential for maintenance ofstrong bones. Copper inhibits bone resorption in vitro and in experimentsconducted on rats, which were given a copper deficient diet, there was reducedbone strength and mineral content. Iodine Iodine is structurally part of thyroid hormones (boththyroxine and triiodothyronine).  Thyroidhormones regulate body temperature, metabolic rate, reproduction, growth,erythropoiesis, and are involved in nerve and muscle function. The major sourceof iodide is the oceans. Iodide deficiency was relatively common, in inlandareas, before the addition of iodide in common table salt and other foods. Magnesium Magnesium is very important in bone formation. It isinvolved in a number of processes essential for bone growth: activation ofalkaline phosphatase – an enzyme which associated with osteoblastic activity(osteoblasts are the cells responsible for laying down of new bone), and inconverting vitamin D to its active form. Magnesium deficiency is common inolder people in North America. Magnesiumdeficiency in addition to affecting bone metabolism, causes nervous systemimpairment, and may be a factor in renal stone formation. Zinc Zinc is involved in the activation of over 700 enzymes(including carbonic anhydrase, DNA and RNA polymerase and alkalinephosphatase). It is essential for the functioning of the immune system (forlymphocyte transformation, thymic hormone production and 10 and 20antibody responses), in the activation of insulin, retinal and vitamin D. Zincis required for normal growth and development, the sense of taste, woundhealing, spermatogenesis and fetal development. In various doses it has been used to treat inflammatoryconditions, periodontal disease, macular degeneration and infertility. Potassium Potassium is important in maintaining electrolyte balance,cell integrity and normal blood pressure. Conduction of electric signals alongnerve fibres involves exchange of potassium for sodium along the nerve fibre.Potassium deficiency from dietary causes is unlikely – however adrenal stresscauses excessive potassium loss and needs to be replenished. Diarrhea may causeconsiderable loss – enough to cause hypokalemia. Eating low quantities of fruitand vegetable, which have the highest content of potassium, may furtheraggravate potassium loss. Chromium Chromium is important in activating insulin as part of theglucose tolerance factor.  Chromium canexert considerable effect on blood glucose levels in mildly diabetic patients.Chromium is found in brewer’s yeast and whole grains – but insufficient intakeseems to be prevalent in North American diets (90% of subjects in a studyconsumed less than half the minimum amount recommended by the National ResearchCouncil – 50 mcg). Selenium Selenium is a major anti-oxidant in the body. It is found inthe enzyme glutathione oxidase, which removes hydrogen peroxide (converting itto water). Hydrogen peroxide is a powerful oxidizing agent and destructive tothe body.  In red blood cellsaccumulation of hydrogen peroxide decreases the life span the cells. Molybdenum Molybdenumoccurs in three enzymes: xanthine oxidase (which produces uric acid), sulfiteoxidase (which converts toxic sulfites to sulfates) and aldehyde oxidase (whichconverts toxic aldehydes such as acetaldehyde – from ethanol oxidation torelatively non-toxic acetate). There is some antagonism between copper andmolybdenum.